The only genuine authority on the intended allusion of a name would be the taxonomist who coined it; however, it has never been standard taxonomic practice to explain these in original descriptions. In any case, it was impracticable for the present purpose to routinely research original generic descriptions, many of which are quite inaccessible. While compiling the (incomplete) information hazarded here, it became apparent that the meanings of names given in standard regional floras (which are generally unreferenced) often differ from one to another; some seem very unlikely, and one (for Eragrostis) may have been painstakingly bowdlerized.
Special difficulties arise from the fact that many supposed allusions quoted today evidently predate the advent of modern, standard descriptive terminology for grass spikelets. Thus, chaff and scale became glume, a term formally applied indiscriminately to glumes and lemmas.
In view of all this, there seems little point in worrying whether particular names have been taken directly from the Latin, or (as seems more usual) Latinized from the Greek; likewise no attempt has been made here to standardize diverse transliterations from Greek script.
Biennial (not known in grasses?): a plant normally requiring two years to complete its life-cycle, growing vegetatively in the first, then flowering, fruiting and perishing in the second.
Perennial: a plant which persists and continues growth for several to many years. Detectable in herbaceous grasses by the shrivelled remnants of old sheaths and culms.
Female-fertile spikelet: a spikelet in which at least one floret has the potential to produce fruit. This and parallel expressions (see below) are peculiar to this package and its derivatives. They reflect the necessity in classification and identification for a term enabling the recording of comparative data across the diversity of sexual expression in the family (for example, permitting structures of the female spikelets of dioecious grasses to be compared with homologous structures in those where the spikelets are exclusively bisexual, and distinguishing them from those of male-only or sterile spikelets).
Female-fertile floret: a floret having the potential to bear fruit.
Female-fertile lemma: a lemma axillant to a female-fertile floret (q.v.).
Female-fertile palea: a palea axillant to a female-fertile flower (the palea of a female-fertile floret, q.v.).
Female-fertile floret: a floret having the potential to bear fruit.
Female-fertile lemma: a lemma axillant to a female-fertile floret (q.v.).
Female-fertile palea: a palea axillant to a female-fertile flower (the palea of a female-fertile floret, q.v.). 208:210. Data mainly from Webster (1985).
Female-fertile spikelet: a spikelet in which at least one floret has the potential to produce fruit. This and parallel expressions (see below) are peculiar to this package and its derivatives. They reflect the necessity in classification and identification for a term enabling the recording of comparative data across the diversity of sexual expression in the family (for example, permitting structures of the female spikelets of dioecious grasses to be compared with homologous structures in those where the spikelets are exclusively bisexual, and distinguished from those of male-only or sterile spikelets).
Female-fertile floret: a floret having the potential to bear fruit.
Female-fertile lemma: a lemma axillant to a female-fertile floret (q.v.).
Female-fertile palea: a palea axillant to a female-fertile flower (the palea of a female-fertile floret, q.v.).
Female-fertile spikelet: a spikelet in which at least one floret has the potential to produce fruit. This and parallel expressions (see below) are peculiar to this package and its derivatives. They reflect the necessity in classification and identification for a term enabling the recording of comparative data across the diversity of sexual expression in the family (for example, permitting structures of the female spikelets of dioecious grasses to be compared with homologous structures in those where the spikelets are exclusively bisexual, and distinguishing them from those of male-only or sterile spikelets).
Female-fertile floret: a floret having the potential to bear fruit.
Female-fertile lemma: a lemma axillant to a female-fertile floret (q.v.).
Female-fertile palea: a palea axillant to a female-fertile flower (the palea of a female-fertile floret, q.v.).
Female-fertile spikelet: a spikelet in which at least one floret has the potential to produce fruit. This and parallel expressions (see below) are peculiar to this package and its derivatives. They reflect the necessity in classification and identification for a term enabling the recording of comparative data across the diversity of sexual expression in the family (for example, permitting structures of the female spikelets of dioecious grasses to be compared with homologous structures in those where the spikelets are exclusively bisexual, and distinguishing them from those of male-only or sterile spikelets).
Female-fertile floret: a floret having the potential to bear fruit.
Female-fertile lemma: a lemma axillant to a female-fertile floret (q.v.).
Female-fertile palea: a palea axillant to a female-fertile flower (the palea of a female-fertile floret, q.v.).
Female-fertile spikelet: a spikelet in which at least one floret has the potential to produce fruit. This and parallel expressions (see below) are peculiar to this package and its derivatives. They reflect the necessity in classification and identification for a term enabling the recording of comparative data across the diversity of sexual expression in the family (for example, permitting structures of the female spikelets of dioecious grasses to be compared with homologous structures in those where the spikelets are exclusively bisexual, and distinguishing them from those of male-only or sterile spikelets).
Female-fertile floret: a floret having the potential to bear fruit.
Female-fertile lemma: a lemma axillant to a female-fertile floret (q.v.).
Female-fertile palea: a palea axillant to a female-fertile flower (the palea of a female-fertile floret, q.v.).
Female-fertile spikelet: a spikelet in which at least one floret has the potential to produce fruit. This and parallel expressions (see below) are peculiar to this package and its derivatives. They reflect the necessity in classification and identification for a term enabling the recording of comparative data across the diversity of sexual expression in the family (for example, permitting structures of the female spikelets of dioecious grasses to be compared with homologous structures in those where the spikelets are exclusively bisexual, and distinguishing them from those of male-only or sterile spikelets).
Female-fertile floret: a floret having the potential to bear fruit.
Female-fertile lemma: a lemma axillant to a female-fertile floret (q.v.).
Female-fertile palea: a palea axillant to a female-fertile flower (the palea of a female-fertile floret, q.v.).
All the leaf anatomical data in these descriptions refer to preparations made from the mid-zone of the laminae of mature, normal leaves; and descriptions of the epidermis refer exclusively to the lower (abaxial) surface of the blade. To obtain reliably comparative data, avoid seedling and flag leaves, culm leaves with blades reduced or missing, and conspicuously unhealthy material. Attempted identification of leaf fragments should be conducted with these sampling considerations in mind, and the results qualified accordingly.
Epidermal preparations have been described as though orientated with the long axis of the leaf (as indictated by its main veins) arranged horizontally across the field of view. Vertical thus means at right angles to the long axis of the leaf and its main veins, and parallel with its surface.
For detailed discussion of grass leaf blade terminology, sampling and preparative techniques, and illustrations, see Metcalfe (1960), Clifford and Watson (1967) and Watson and Dallwitz (1988).
The accompanying file informs on the samples from which the descriptions derive.
All the leaf anatomical data in these descriptions refer to preparations made from the mid-zone of the laminae of mature, normal leaves; and descriptions of the epidermis refer exclusively to the lower (abaxial) surface of the blade. To obtain reliably comparative data, avoid seedling and flag leaves, culm leaves with blades reduced or missing, and conspicuously unhealthy material. Attempted identification of leaf fragments should be conducted with these sampling considerations in mind, and the results qualified accordingly.
Epidermal preparations have been described as though orientated with the long axis of the leaf (as indictated by its main veins) arranged horizontally across the field of view. Vertical thus means at right angles to the long axis of the leaf and its main veins, and parallel with its surface.
For detailed discussion of grass leaf blade terminology, sampling and preparative techniques, and illustrations, see Metcalfe (1960), Clifford and Watson (1977) and Watson and Dallwitz (1988).
The accompanying file informs on the samples from which the descriptions derive.
All the leaf anatomical data in these descriptions refer to preparations made from the mid-zone of the laminae of mature, normal leaves; and descriptions of the epidermis refer exclusively to the lower (abaxial) surface of the blade. To obtain reliably comparative data, avoid seedling and flag leaves, culm leaves with blades reduced or missing, and conspicuously unhealthy material. Attempted identification of leaf fragments should be conducted with these sampling considerations in mind, and the results qualified accordingly.
Observing the epidermal characters used here requires transmission light microscopy, because their interpretation depends on viewing cells in in optical section, or focusing into them. Many useful epidermal characters are unavailable or are not reliably recordable from scanning electron micrographs.
Epidermal preparations have been described as though orientated with the long axis of the leaf (as indictated by its main veins) arranged horizontally across the field of view. Vertical thus means at right angles to the long axis of the leaf and its main veins, and parallel with its surface.
For detailed discussion of grass leaf blade terminology, sampling and preparative techniques, and illustrations, see Metcalfe (1960), Clifford and Watson (1967) and Watson and Dallwitz (1988).
The accompanying file informs on the samples from which the descriptions derive.
All the leaf anatomical data in these descriptions refer to preparations made from the mid-zone of the laminae of mature, normal leaves; and descriptions of the epidermis refer exclusively to the lower (abaxial) surface of the blade. To obtain reliably comparative data, avoid seedling and flag leaves, culm leaves with blades reduced or missing, and conspicuously unhealthy material. Attempted identification of leaf fragments should be conducted with these sampling considerations in mind, and the results qualified accordingly.
Epidermal preparations have been described as though orientated with the long axis of the leaf (as indictated by its main veins) arranged horizontally across the field of view. Vertical thus means at right angles to the long axis of the leaf and its main veins, and parallel with its surface.
For detailed discussion of grass leaf blade terminology, sampling and preparative techniques, and illustrations, see Metcalfe (1960), Clifford and Watson (1977) and Watson and Dallwitz (1988).
The accompanying file informs on the samples from which the descriptions derive.
The accompanying file informs on the samples from which the descriptions derive.
For detailed discussion of grass leaf blade terminology, sampling and preparative techniques, and illustrations, see Metcalfe (1960), Clifford and Watson (1967) and Watson and Dallwitz (1988).
The terms PCA (primary carbon assimilation) and PCR (photosynthetic carbon reduction: containing Rubisco) are applicable to the cells and tissues of C4 forms only. For these, the term PCR is preferable to Kranz, since it is directly indicative of physiological function, and PCR cells do not always occur in Kranz bundle sheaths.
For detailed discussion, see Hattersley and Watson (1975) and Hattersley et al. (1977).
For detailed discussion of C4 anatomical tissue configurations and physiological types, see Hattersley (1992) and Hattersley and Watson (1993).
All the leaf anatomical data in these descriptions refer to preparations made from the mid-zone of the laminae of normal, mature leaves. To obtain reliably comparative data, avoid seedling and flag leaves, culm leaves with blades reduced or missing, and conspicuously unhealthy material. Attempted identification of leaf fragments should be conducted with these sampling considerations in mind, and the results qualified accordingly.
The accompanying file informs on the samples from which the descriptions derive.
For detailed discussion of grass leaf blade terminology, sampling and preparative techniques, and illustrations, see Metcalfe (1960), Clifford and Watson (1967) and Watson and Dallwitz (1988).
The terms PCA (primary carbon assimilation) and PCR (photosynthetic carbon reduction: containing Rubisco) are applicable to the cells and tissues of C4 forms only. For these, the term PCR is preferable to Kranz, since it is directly indicative of physiological function, and PCR cells do not always occur in Kranz bundle sheaths.
The terms PCA (primary carbon assimilation) and PCR (photosynthetic carbon reduction: containing Rubisco) are applicable to the cells and tissues of C4 forms only. For these, the term PCR is preferable to Kranz, since it is directly indicative of physiological function, and PCR cells do not always occur in Kranz bundle sheaths.
The terms PCA (primary carbon assimilation) and PCR (photosynthetic carbon reduction: containing Rubisco) are applicable to the cells and tissues of C4 forms only. For these, the term PCR is preferable to Kranz, since it is directly indicative of physiological function, and PCR cells do not always occur in Kranz bundle sheaths.
The terms PCA (primary carbon assimilation) and PCR (photosynthetic carbon reduction: containing Rubisco) are applicable to the cells and tissues of C4 forms only. For these, the term PCR is preferable to Kranz, since it is directly indicative of physiological function, and PCR cells do not always occur in Kranz bundle sheaths.
The terms PCA (primary carbon assimilation) and PCR (photosynthetic carbon reduction: containing Rubisco) are applicable to the cells and tissues of C4 forms only. For these, the term PCR is preferable to Kranz, since it is directly indicative of physiological function, and PCR cells do not always occur in Kranz bundle sheaths.
The terms PCA (primary carbon assimilation) and PCR (photosynthetic carbon reduction: containing Rubisco) are applicable to the cells and tissues of C4 forms only. For these, the term PCR is preferable to Kranz, since it is directly indicative of physiological function, and PCR cells do not always occur in Kranz bundle sheaths.
For detailed discussion of C4 anatomical tissue configurations and physiological types, see Hattersley (1992) and Hattersley and Watson (1993).
All the leaf anatomical data in these descriptions refer to preparations made from the mid-zone of the laminae of normal, mature leaves. To obtain reliably comparative data, avoid seedling and flag leaves, culm leaves with blades reduced or missing, and conspicuously unhealthy material. Attempted identification of leaf fragments should be conducted with these sampling considerations in mind, and the results qualified accordingly.
The accompanying file informs on the samples from which the descriptions derive.
For detailed discussion of grass leaf blade terminology, sampling and preparative techniques, and illustrations, see Metcalfe (1960), Clifford and Watson (1967) and Watson and Dallwitz (1988).
The accompanying file informs on the samples from which the descriptions derive.
For detailed discussion of grass leaf blade terminology, sampling and preparative techniques, and illustrations, see Metcalfe (1960), Clifford and Watson (1967) and Watson and Dallwitz (1988).
Colourless cells, tissue: mesophyll with unlignified cell walls and seemingly without cytoplasmic contents. A characteristic feature of many mature grass leaf blades, offering much scope for ontogenetic and functional-physiological work. Sometimes (and commonly in Chloridoideae) linking with bulliforms to divide the blade longitudinally into compartments, which exhibut varying degrees of completeness from genus to genus.
All the leaf anatomical data in these descriptions refer to preparations made from the mid-zone of the laminae of normal, mature leaves. To obtain reliably comparative data, avoid seedling and flag leaves, culm leaves with blades reduced or missing, and conspicuously unhealthy material. Attempted identification of leaf fragments should be conducted with these sampling considerations in mind, and the results qualified accordingly.
The accompanying file informs on the samples from which the descriptions derive.
For detailed discussion of grass leaf blade terminology, sampling and preparative techniques, and illustrations, see Metcalfe (1960), Clifford and Watson (1967) and Watson and Dallwitz (1988).
In the diagram depicting immunodiffusion tests (Watson and Knox 1976), Agropyron repens is here referred to Elytrigia, Danthonia eriantha to Austrodanthonia, and the two Elymus species to Leymus.
The illustrations of Watsons immunoelectrophoretic gels (cf. Watson 1983) are labelled with only generic names. The species used were: Agrostis tenuis, Bromus inermis, Festuca rubra, Cortaderia selloana, Cynodon dactylon, Lolium perenne, Paspalum distichum, Phalaris arundinacea, Poa pratensis, Saccharum officinarum, Secale cereale, Sorghum halepense, Zea mais.
Helophytes: marsh plants.
Mesophytes: plants avoiding extremes of moisture and drought in habitats intermediate between those of hydrophytes and xerophytes.
Xerophytes: plants which normally subsist with relatively little moisture (usually exhibiting one or more recognisable xeromorphic features, which include extreme hairiness, thick cuticles, rolled or pungent or reduced leaves, etc.).
Cite this publication as: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M. J. (1992 onwards). ‘Grass Genera of the World: Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Information Retrieval; including Synonyms, Morphology, Anatomy, Physiology, Phytochemistry, Cytology, Classification, Pathogens, World and Local Distribution, and References.’ http://biodiversity.uno.edu/delta/. Version: 18th August 1999. Dallwitz (1980), Dallwitz, Paine and Zurcher (1993 onwards, 1998), and Watson and Dallwitz (1994), and Watson, Dallwitz, and Johnston (1986) should also be cited (see References).